Ethics in Technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Ethics in Technology - Essay Example In contrast, the Trojan Horse was specifically classified as a virus which manifests damaging capabilities to the computer in terms of infecting the user’s files virtually undetected. Its origin was reported to have be sourced from the story in the Greek mythology regarding the invasion of Troy where Greek warriors reported hid in the huge wooden Trojan horse that was presented, supposedly as a gift. Part 2: Examining the Morality of Releasing a Worm 1. Through Kantian Ethics Explaining Kantian ethics in simpler terms, the ethical theory is expounded through the scenario where a perpetuator of an act focuses on the act itself, without apparent regard to the act’s repercussion or outcome. Kant asserted that by virtue of the task, duty, or job, actions are evaluated on their own precepts. Kantian ethics was also explained in terms of seeing one’s behavior or actions in terms of one’s duty or obligation. In the case of Morris, as a student, it was his duty to conform and adhere to the standards and ideals of the university where he was enrolled. As such, his actions were governed by the university’s rules, policies, and codes of coduct and ethical behavior. Therefore, looking at Morris’ actions regarding the issue of releasing the Internet worm that apparently created damage to more than 6,000 computers globally , the act still violated both ethical and moral standards using the Kantian ethics in terms of discerning that the act itself was already wrong at the onset. Releasing the worm as the act was found to be described as â€Å"the unfocused intellectual meandering of a hacker completely absorbed with his creation and unharnessed by considerations of explicit purpose or potential effect† (Eisenberg, Gries, Hartmanis, Holcomb, Lynn, & Santoro, 1989, p. 706). The committee who reviewed the ethical dilemma found that Morris’ actions failed to abide by the ethical standards of professionalism and of discerning that the act was initially morally wrong. 2. Through Utilitarian Ethics Utilitarian ethics, on the other hand was described as an ethical theory that focuses on the results or outcome, specifically, how the action affects the greater number of people for the greater good (National Endowment for Financial Education, 2006). With the premise that utilitarian ethics focuses on the outcome, Morris’ release of the worm is definitely seen as morally wrong since the results have been proven to be destructive. Likewise, as revealed from the Cornell Commission, while reviewing Morris’ actions, the committee tasked to impose sanctions to Morris revealed that by being a student of Cornell and who accepted accountability for releasing the worm through the Internet, he exemplified failure to take a proactive stance in seriously considering the repercussions of his actions and what the potential effects would be in the owners and users of the computers he infected. Therefore, the ac tion is also a violation of moral standards using the utilitarian ethics framework, since it resulted to negative impact on a significantly large number of people, whose files and databases had been compromised, lost and damaged due to his actions. Conclusion In evaluating the ethical issues pertinent to Morris’

Human Resource Development Essay Example for Free

Human Resource Development Essay In both definitions we see that learning was in some form mentioned as being part of human resource development, and from further understanding of HRD we see that learning is important in all aspects of HRD efforts. According to the text Human Resource Management by Jon M. Werner and Randy L. DeSimone they defined learning a relatively permanent change in behavior, cognition, or affect that occurs as a result of one’s interaction with the environment. There are three basic principles of learning contiguity, the law of effect and practice. Practice is stated to be repeating the event with the hope that it will increase the strength of what is being taught. For example in any sporting area practice is needed to strengthen the players and so to in the business environment. In understanding how practice works in order to maximize learning we look at the primary area of the training design under the categories of conditions of practice and retention of what is learned. There are at least six issues that relate to practice and learning they are; active practice, massed versus spaced practice sessions, whole versus part learning, overlearning ,knowledge of result and task sequences. From the six issues the three that I would considers using are; Active practice proposes that the individual who is being taught should be given the opportunity to repeatedly perform the task or use the knowledge being learned. For example surgeons, rescue squad, pilots, just to name a few should be given avenues to practice hat they learned. Same goes for training the mechanics to install the automobile air-conditioners using the new installation procedures, if the mechanics are allowed to practice the theory that was taught it would leave room for better understanding of what is required of them and result in better outcomes on the jobs confirming , that the new procedures was learnt. Massed versus spaced practice involve whether the training should be conducted in one session or divided into segments separated by a period of time. Studies have shown that spaced practice sessions lead to better performance and longer retention but are more effect for difficult and complex tasks, however the task at hand isn’t difficult and can be taught in one session. Overlearning is practice beyond the point at which the material or task is mastered. This is another condition in which the trainers can implement when training the mechanics to install the air conditioners using the new procedures, giving the mechanics enough opportunities to keep practicing the task will soon become simple The goal goes beyond the trainee learning the task or material but also retaining it. There are three additional issues that influence retention; these are the meaningfulness of the material, the degree of original learning and interference. The more meaningful and factual the information is the easier it is learned and remembered and since the new procedure is important for the installation of the air conditioners the mechanics would seek more interest and retain the information effectively , as they would see it fit to keep their jobs and acquire more customers. Secondly for the mechanics to continually retain the information being learned there should be little or no interference or it should be taken into consideration when training. This meaning that sometimes the knowledge of the old procedure might affect the way the mechanics learn the new procedure also if new steps are added while installing the air conditioner in a different vehicle it can cause confusion in the learning process. The case of the new Employee Assistant Programme Act, since it is an act where information may be presented in a document and the managers can always refer to it when needed, I would suggest using the conditions of active practice. This being the Employees Assistance Programme Act would be something that they would have to implement everyday so it would certainly give the managers the opportunity to perform the task and use the knowledge being used. Also because there is no real step by step process of implementing the act then the conditions of a massed practice session can be put in place, for example a meeting can be held where all managers are taught and given an explanation of the act and why it is necessary, as well as the document of the act where they can refer to when needed. By giving an explanation and ensure the managers what is the purpose and the reason for the Employee Assistant Programme Act , it leaves room for better retention since they are aware of the meaningfulness of they are being taught. Also distinguishing the difference from similar acts can reduce the interference of confusion and misunderstands. In conclusion if the these conditions and retentions are used in the training design both the employees and the managers can experience maximum learning and show that in order to learn practice is required. Read more: http://www. businessdictionary. com/definition/human-resource-development-HRD. html#ixzz2MgJJc071

George Street Bridge Project Charter

George Street Bridge Project Charter This Project Charter outlines the budget, schedule, scope, milestones and delivery strategy for design construction of the George Street Bridge, Newport. This charter also includes the major risks and risk mitigation strategies associated with this construction Project. Once the project charter is complete, the project team will finalize a detailed construction schedule. And after the approval is granted by the Council, the project will be guided by this Charter. Background and problem statement This project focuses on the construction of a reliable and safe street bridge in Newport. It has been observed that during peak hours in the city, the high speed traffic makes it very unsafe for pedestrians and cyclists to cross the street. Thus the construction of a crossover bridge with bike lanes and trails has been suggested that can improve the road safety for pedestrians and cyclists. Scope The scope of this Project includes: Construction of a new bridge of modern standards; 2 travel lanes; Bike lanes in both directions on the bridge; Trails for both pedestrians and cyclists Separate pedestrian pathway on the north side of the bridge; Traffic Signal intersection at Harbor Road; Links to existing and future pathways and trails; Improved approach roads to the bridge; Improved safety and accessibility; Relocations of utilities; Decommissioning of existing construction on the area where the bridge is to be constructed; Landscaping; and Public art. This project aims at providing alternative transportation amenities. This bridge will ensure that the pedestrians and cyclists can safely pass through the high speed traffic. This bridge will improve the city infrastructure and will lead to orderly traffic movement. Objectives This bridge will be a sustainable bridge with improved cyclist and pedestrian amenities. The objective of this project is to build a bridge that will provide a transportation link on the George Street. The bridge will be constructed following all the construction guidelines of Newport city. The bridge will link existing and future trails and pathways. This bridge follows all the laid down policies of development and transportation, and will support the economic vitality of the downtown. This project will create jobs during the construction period and the traffic to and from the city will be minimally impacted. Project Team The Project Team will consist of the George Street Bridge Project Director, the Project Team, which will be supported by professional expertise and key staff in areas of finance, engineering and procurement. Also experts form audit, legal, communications, risk management, and from other areas as required will be assisting the project management team. The project team will also include professional engineering support from the chief consultant. The team will have support from sub-consultants which include bridge architecture, structural, quantity survey, geotechnical, mechanical electrical during various phases of the project. The chief consultant Group has expertise and experience in constructing bridges. In addition to the above, the chief consulting team can provide recommendations related to design-assist procurement as well as contractor procurement. Issues 1. Numerous stakeholders with diverse interests are involved. 2. Project delay would impact many citizens of Newport city 3. Since the global economy is recovering, a large number of pending projects might start in same timeframe as George Street project. Risks and risk mitigation Construction projects are characterized by the presence of many risks. Some of these can be directly controlled by the project management team, while there are others that are linked to the market. Some of these risks are major ones that can have a significant impact on the project budget or project schedule. The major risks and the risk mitigation technique to control risk are as follows: Steel Prices: Steel represents a significant portion (approximately 45%) of the bridge material and cost. Steel prices are affected by global economic drivers. This can be mitigated by securing steel unit prices by signing contracts with the suppliers well in advance or placing them on the design assist team. Market conditions for construction: Market conditions for construction may change. This is again linked to the market and cannot be controlled by the project management team. This risk can be mitigated by securing a general contractor as early as possible to work with the design-assist team Competing projects: Competing projects draw resources and contractor interest away from the ongoing project. This can again be checked by securing a contractor on the design team. Actual site conditions vary On many occasions the actual site conditions vary significantly from what has been expected. To control this risk additional geotechnical investigation work can be carried out. Utility relocation Significant delay in utility relocations takes place. Project managers can work towards having more cooperation and coordination with external utilities providers. Other risks could be lengthy gap between construction disciplines or conflicting instructions from clients staff to contractor. These risks can be mitigated by having better communication and coordination or with the use of appropriate cost control measures and project management techniques. Change Management Any Significant changes in the scope of the project will be approved by the Management Committee. These changes could be changes in the items list provided under Scope. But these changes will be well within the contingencies provided in the project budget. If any of the changes appear to fundamentally alter the mandate then they will be presented to Council and the management committee for final approval. These could be changes in the deliverables listed under Scope. The authority to make critical decisions will be with the George Street Bridge Project Director. Quality Assurance The responsibility of overall design of the bridge will vest with the prime consultant for the project. The consultant will be responsible for the design integrity of various works undertaken under the George Street Bridge contract. The chief contractor, after appointment, will be responsible for complying with the design as shown in the design documents prepared by the consultant Group. The quality assurance program will aim at delivering regular reports to the city project team during fabrication and construction stages in a pre decided format. Budget: The estimate cost of designing and constructing the George Street Bridge is estimated at $20 Million. This estimate assumes that there will be no significant change in the current economic conditions and the steel prices will not increase significantly. The budget also assumes that quality labour will be available throughout the construction of the bridge. This budget includes a contingency of 10% as recommended by the chief design consultant which was reviewed by an associate consultant. The construction of this bridge involves a significant quantity of steel, representing approximately 45% of the current estimate as mentioned earlier. Cost control measures will be employed throughout the project lifecycle to monitor and track the budget. Funding for the Project is as follows: $10 million City borrowing $3 million Reprioritization of City capital projects and other internal sources $7 million federal Contribution Agreement TOTAL $20 Million Timeline: The timeline for this construction project considers the time required for steel manufacturing and fabrication; erection and testing; and construction of the piers, detailed design; bridge assembly abutments and approaches. The project manager aims to complete the project by no later than March 31, 2015. Project constraints The following are the project constraints that can impact the completion of this Project: 1. Regulatory requirements 2. Disbursement of utilities 3. Construction economy 4. Availability of resources and construction materials 5. Unstable global steel market Most of these are not in direct control of the Project Team. Assumptions The Project completion assumes the following: 1. The Economic situation remains almost stable 2. Steel prices will not increase dramatically 3. There will be very few changes in the ground conditions 4. Coordination with fisheries windows to minimize delay construction 5. Steel materials and fabrication resources are available 6. Utilities will be available on time and will be well within budget 7. Qualified Engineers and Contractors are easily available 8. All the decisions are well informed and are as per the schedule Management Accountability Approach The sustainability of a project depends on the sustainability of its stakeholder relationships. There are many stakeholders having different proportions of stake in a project. Stakeholder management is essential for a successful project. An active reporting system will be followed to keep the stakeholders involved and updated. Progress Reporting A quarterly summary report will be provided to the Council and the stakeholders. Informal reporting will also be done through weekly meetings of the project team members and/or their representatives. Active use of internet will be done to keep both the public and the staff informed of developments of the project. Arrangements will be made to update regular reports on the project website. The project will be a success if the project manager is able to complete the project on time with enhanced safety and reliability. The bridge will be a model for other construction projects taken up in the city of Newport. The project will be successful if it achieves its objective of improving the crossing experience for pedestrians and cyclists.

Does Free Trade Retard or Improve Development in Developing Countries E

Introduction The 19th century international system was a very significant era of the doctrine and practice of free trade. This key date in the 19th century was 1846, the year England repealed the corn law. The corn laws had protected British aristocrats and farmers from imported corn. Corn at this time was used to make bread. This dispute pitted industrialists and many workers against landowners and farmers. The industrialist wanted cheap corn so that the cost of bread would be lowered and they could reduce or reduce workers wages. This would give their products a competitive advantage in international markets over products from nations where the cost of food and wages were expensive. The workers in Britain also supported this law because they wanted to buy cheap bread. David Ricardo, a stock trader and member of parliament, articulated the liberal theory of comparative advantage which made intellectual case for free trade. Today this theory of comparative advantage has remained the bedrock of ar guments for economic integration and free trade. The broad purpose of this paper is to try and answer these questions; †¢ Does Free Trade Improve or Retard Development in Developing Countries †¢ Is Free Trade really Free. Free trade is the trade among two or more countries without any limitations imposed by the governments or other regulators; thus the free movement of goods and services across national frontiers (O’Brien and Williams, 2007 p.139). (Vander .W, 2005 p.24). It points to the liberalisation of the markets of nations through the elimination of tariffs, quotas and other form of restrictions to allow the free flow of products beyond national borders. Benefits of Free Trade Trade Openness. Free Trade has remained a fundam... ...the Barrel: Africa’s Oil Boom and the Poor. Available at http://www.crsprogramquality.org/storage/peacebuilding/Bottom%20of%20the%20barrel.pdf European Commission, (2012). Trade, growth and development; Tailoring trade and investment policy for those countries most in need [SEC (2012) 87 final]. O’Brien, R. and Williams, M. (eds.) (2007) Global Political Economy: Evolution and Dynamics. 2nd edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave. OECD, (2009). Journal on Development Trading Out of Poverty; How Aid for Trade Can Help. World Bank (2000) World Development Indicators 2000. Washington D.C: World Bank [Online] Available at http://data.worldbank.org/indicator Stop Free Trade : Available at http://www.stopftaa.org/is-free-trade-really-free-what-it-costs-a-country.html UNCTAD, (2004).The Least Developed Countries Report . UNCTAD/LDC/2004 (Overview), sales no.E.03.II.D.9.

Vampire Academy Chapter 19

NINETEEN IT'S HARD TO SAY WHAT finally made me do it. I'd held on to so many secrets for so long, doing what I believed best protected Lissa. But hiding her cutting did nothing to protect her. I hadn't been able to make her stop – and really, I now wondered if it was my fault she'd ever started. None of this had happened until she healed me in the accident. What if she'd left me injured? Maybe I would have recovered. Maybe she would be all right today. I stayed in the clinic while Dimitri went to get Alberta. He hadn't hesitated for a second when I told him where she was. I'd said she was in danger, and he'd left immediately. Everything after that moved like some sort of slow-motion nightmare. The minutes dragged on while I waited. When he finally returned with an unconscious Lissa, a flurry arose at the clinic, one everyone wanted me kept out of. She had lost a lot of blood, and while they had a feeder on hand right away, rousing her to enough consciousness to drink proved difficult. It wasn't until the middle of the Academy's night that someone decided she was stable enough for me to visit. â€Å"Is it true?† she asked when I walked into the room. She lay on the bed, wrists heavily bandaged. I knew they'd put a lot of blood back into her, but she still looked pale to me. â€Å"They said it was you. You told them.† â€Å"I had to,† I said, afraid to get too close. â€Å"Liss†¦you cut yourself worse than you ever have. And after healing me†¦and then everything with Christian†¦you couldn't handle it. You needed help.† She closed her eyes. â€Å"Christian. You know about that. Of course you do. You know about everything.† â€Å"I'm sorry. I just wanted to help.† â€Å"What happened to what Ms. Karp said? About keeping it all secret?† â€Å"She was talking about the other stuff. I don't think she'd want you to keep cutting yourself.† â€Å"Did you tell them about the ? ®other stuff'?† I shook my head. â€Å"Not yet.† She turned toward me, eyes cold. † ? ®Yet.' But you're going to.† â€Å"I have to. You can heal other people†¦but it's killing you.† â€Å"I healed you.† â€Å"I would have been okay eventually. The ankle would have healed. It's not worth what it does to you. And I think I know how it started†¦when you first healed me†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I explained my revelation about the accident and how all of her powers and depression had started after that. I also pointed out how our bond had formed after the accident too, though I didn't fully understand why yet. â€Å"I don't know what's going on, but this is beyond us. We need someone's help.† â€Å"They'll take me away,† she said flatly. â€Å"Like Ms. Karp.† â€Å"I think they'll try to help you. They were all really worried. Liss, I'm doing this for you. I just want you to be okay.† She turned away from me. â€Å"Get out, Rose.† I did. They released her the next morning on the condition that she'd have to come back for daily visits to the counselor. Dimitri told me they also planned on putting her on some sort of medication to help with the depression. I wasn't a big fan of pills, but I'd cheer on anything that would help her. Unfortunately, some sophomore had been in the clinic for an asthma attack. He'd seen her come in with Dimitri and Alberta. He didn't know why she'd been admitted, but that hadn't stopped him from telling people in his hall what he'd seen. They then told others at breakfast. By lunch, all the upperclassmen knew about the late-night clinic visit. And more importantly, everyone knew she wasn't speaking to me. Just like that, whatever social headway I'd made plummeted. She didn't outright condemn me, but her silence spoke legions, and people behaved accordingly. The whole day, I walked around the Academy like a ghost. People watched and occasionally spoke to me, but few made much more effort than that. They followed Lissa's lead, imitating her silence. No one was openly mean to me – they probably didn't want to risk it in case she and I patched things up. Still, I heard â€Å"blood whore† whispered here and there when someone thought I wasn't listening. Mason would have welcomed me to his lunch table, but some of his friends might not have been so nice. I didn't want to be the cause of any fights between him and them. So I chose Natalie instead. â€Å"I heard Lissa tried to run away again, and you stopped her,† Natalie said. No one had a clue why she'd been in the clinic yet. I hoped it stayed that way. Running away? Where in the world had that come from? â€Å"Why would she do that?† â€Å"I don't know.† She lowered her voice. â€Å"Why'd she leave before? It's just what I heard.† That story raged on as the day passed, as did all sorts of rumors about why Lissa might have gone to the med clinic. Pregnancy and abortion theories were eternally popular. Some whispered she might have gotten Victor's disease. No one even came close to guessing the truth. Leaving our last class as quickly as possible, I was astonished when Mia started walking toward me. â€Å"What do you want?† I demanded. â€Å"I can't come out and play today, little girl.† â€Å"You sure have an attitude for someone who doesn't exist right now.† â€Å"As opposed to you?† I asked. Remembering what Christian had said, I did feel a little sorry for her. That guilt disappeared after I took one look at her face. She might have been a victim, but now she was a monster. There was a cold, cunning look about her, very different from the desperate and depressed one from the other day. She hadn't stayed beaten after what Andre had done to her – if that was even true, and I believed it was – and I doubted she would with Lissa either. Mia was a survivor. â€Å"She got rid of you, and you're too high and mighty to admit it.† Her blue eyes practically bugged out. â€Å"Don't you want to get back at her?† â€Å"Are you more psycho than usual? She's my best friend. And why are you still following me?† Mia tsked. â€Å"She doesn't act like it. Come on, tell me what happened at the clinic. It's something big, isn't it? She really is pregnant, right? Tell me what it is.† â€Å"Go away.† â€Å"If you tell me, I'll get Jesse and Ralf to say they made all that stuff up.† I stopped walking and spun around to face her. Scared, she took a few steps backward. She must have recalled some of my past threats of physical violence. â€Å"I already know they made it all up, because I didn't do any of it. And if you try to turn me against Lissa one more time, the stories are going to be about you bleeding, because I'll have ripped your throat out!† My voice grew louder with each word until I practically shouted. Mia stepped back further, clearly terrified. â€Å"You really are crazy. No wonder she dropped you.† She shrugged. â€Å"Whatever. I'll find out what's going on without you.† When the dance came that weekend, I decided I really didn't want to go. It had sounded stupid to begin with, and I'd only been interested in going to the after-parties anyway. But without Lissa, I wasn't likely to gain admission to those. Instead, I holed up in my room, trying – and failing – to do some homework. Through the bond, I felt all sorts of mixed emotions from her, particularly anxiety and excitement. It had to be hard hanging out all night with a guy you didn't really like. About ten minutes after the dance's start time, I decided to clean up and take a shower. When I came back down the hall from the bathroom, a towel wrapped around my head, I saw Mason standing outside my door. He wasn't exactly dressed up, but he also wasn't wearing jeans. It was a start. â€Å"There you are, party girl. I was about ready to give up.† â€Å"Did you start another fire? No guys allowed in this hall.† â€Å"Whatever. Like that makes a difference.† True. The school might be able to keep Strigoi out, but they did a horrible job at keeping the rest of us away from each other. â€Å"Let me in. You've got to get ready.† It took me a minute to realize what he meant. â€Å"No. I'm not going.† â€Å"Come on,† he prodded, following me inside. † ? ®Cause you had a fight with Lissa? You guys are going to make up soon. No reason for you to stay here all night. If you don't want to be around her, Eddie's getting a group together over in his room later.† My old, fun-loving spirit perked its head up just a bit. No Lissa. Probably no royals. â€Å"Yeah?† Seeing that he was starting to get me, Mason grinned. Looking at his eyes, I realized again how much he liked me. And again I wondered, Why couldn't I just have a normal boyfriend? Why did I want my hot, older mentor – the mentor I'd probably end up getting fired? â€Å"It'll just be novices,† Mason continued, oblivious to my thoughts. â€Å"And I have a surprise for you when we get there.† â€Å"Is it in a bottle?† If Lissa wanted to ignore me, I had no reason to keep myself sober. â€Å"No, that's at Eddie's. Hurry up and get dressed. I know you aren't wearing that.† I looked down at my ripped jeans and University of Oregon T-shirt. Yeah. Definitely not wearing this. Fifteen minutes later, we cut across the quad back over to the commons, laughing as we recounted how a particularly clumsy classmate of ours had given himself a black eye in practice this week. Moving quickly over the frozen ground wasn't easy in heels, and he kept grabbing my arm to keep me from falling over, half-dragging me along. It made us laugh that much more. A happy feeling started to well up in me – I wasn't entirely rid of the ache for Lissa, but this was a start. Maybe I didn't have her and her friends, but I had my own friends. It was also very likely that I was going to get head-over-heels drunk tonight, which, while not a great way to solve my problems, would at least be really fun. Yeah. My life could be worse. Then we ran into Dimitri and Alberta. They were on their way somewhere else, talking guardian business. Alberta smiled when she saw us, giving us the kind of indulgent look older people always give to younger people who appear to be having fun and acting silly. Like she thought we were cute. The nerve. We stumbled to a halt, and Mason put a hand on my arm to steady me. â€Å"Mr. Ashford, Miss Hathaway. I'm surprised you aren't already in the commons.† Mason gave her an angelic, teacher's-pet smile. â€Å"Got delayed, Guardian Petrov. You know how it is with girls. Always got to look perfect. You especially must know all about that.† Normally I would have elbowed him for saying something so stupid, but I was staring at Dimitri and incapable of speech. Perhaps more importantly, he was staring at me too. I had on the black dress, and it was everything I'd hoped it could be. In fact, it was a wonder Alberta didn't call me on the dress code right there and then. The fabric clung everywhere, and no Moroi girl's chest could have held this dress up. Victor's rose hung around my neck, and I'd done a hasty blow-dry of my hair, leaving it down the way I knew Dimitri liked it. I hadn't worn tights because no one wore tights with dresses like this anymore, so my feet were freezing in the heels. All for the sake of looking good. And I was pretty sure I looked damn good, but Dimitri's face wasn't giving anything away. He just looked at me – and looked and looked. Maybe that said something about my appearance in and of itself. Remembering how Mason sort of held my hand, I pulled away from him. He and Alberta finished up their joking remarks, and we all went our separate ways. Music blasted inside the commons when we arrived, white Christmas lights and – ugh – a disco ball casting the only light in the otherwise darkened room. Gyrating bodies, mostly underclassmen, packed the dance floor. Those who were our age stood in too-cool clusters along the edges of the room, waiting for an opportune time to sneak off. An assortment of chaperones, guardians and Moroi teachers alike, patrolled around, breaking up those dancers who did a little too much gyrating. When I saw Kirova in a sleeveless plaid dress, I turned to Mason and said, â€Å"Are you sure we can't hit the hard liquor yet?† He snickered and took my hand again. â€Å"Come on, time for your surprise.† Letting him lead me, I walked across the room, cutting through a cluster of freshmen who looked way too young to be doing the kind of pelvic thrusts they were attempting. Where were the chaperones when you needed them? Then I saw where he was leading me and came to a screeching halt. â€Å"No,† I said, not budging when he tugged my hand. â€Å"Come on, it's going to be great.† â€Å"You're taking me to Jesse and Ralf. The only way I can ever be seen with them is if I've got a blunt object, and I'm aiming between their legs.† He pulled me again. â€Å"Not anymore. Come on.† Reluctant, I finally started moving: my worst fears were realized when a few pairs eyes turned our way. Great. Everything was starting all over again. Jesse and Ralf didn't notice us at first, but when they did, an amusing array of expressions played over their faces. First they saw my body and the dress. Testosterone took over as pure male lust shone out of their faces. Then they seemed to realize it was me and promptly turned terrified. Cool. Mason gave Jesse a sharp poke in the chest with the end of his finger. â€Å"All right, Zeklos. Tell her.† Jesse didn't say anything, and Mason repeated the gesture, only harder. â€Å"Tell her.† Not meeting my eyes, Jesse mumbled, â€Å"Rose, we know none of that stuff happened.† I almost choked on my own laughter. â€Å"Do you? Wow. I'm really glad to hear that. Because you see, until you said that, I'd been thinking it had happened. Thank God you guys are here to set me straight and tell me what the hell I have or haven't done!† They flinched, and Mason's light expression darkened to something harder. â€Å"She knows that,† he growled. â€Å"Tell her the rest.† Jesse sighed. â€Å"We did it because Mia told us to.† â€Å"And?† prompted Mason. â€Å"And we're sorry.† Mason turned to Ralf. â€Å"I want to hear it from you, big boy.† Ralf wouldn't meet my eyes either, but he mumbled something that sounded vaguely like an apology. Seeing them defeated, Mason turned chipper. â€Å"You haven't heard the best part yet.† I cut him a sidelong look. â€Å"Yeah? Like the part where we rewind time and none of this ever happened?† â€Å"Next best thing.† He tapped Jesse again. â€Å"Tell her. Tell her why you did it.† Jesse looked up and exchanged uneasy looks with Ralf. â€Å"Boys,† warned Mason, clearly delighted about something, â€Å"you're making Hathaway and me very angry. Tell her why you did it.† Wearing the look of one who realized things couldn't get any worse, Jesse finally met my eyes. â€Å"We did it because she slept with us. Both of us.†

Slideshow English

Slideshow English Slideshow English Slideshow English By Maeve Maddox Although I know they are a time-suck, slideshows with intriguing titles or photos often lure me in. The most recent to attract my attention was about â€Å"freaky coincidences.† Because the format was the kind that requires two clicks for each slide–one for the photo and one for the caption–I was ready to stop after the second slide, but the first sentence of the second caption prompted me to continue: A man saved the same baby’s life twice on accident. Always on the lookout for material, I felt I had found a possible source of nonstandard English, so I kept going. I was not disappointed. If the slideshow was created by a non-native English speaker for personal amusement, the numerous errors are understandable. If the captions are the work of a professional writer whose native language is English, they reflect a serious lack of revision. The show’s 14 slides yield 16 examples of nonstandard usage and punctuation. I won’t comment on punctuation. 1. A man saved the same baby’s life twice on accident. Although often heard, â€Å"on accident† is unidiomatic. The standard expression is â€Å"by accident†: â€Å"A man saved the same baby’s life twice by accident.† 2. In 1930, a baby fell out of a window and Joseph Figlock broke the land. The writer is thinking of the baby’s landing. â€Å"Broke the landing† would do the job, but â€Å"broke the baby’s fall† would be better. 3. In 1858, a man was shot dead while playing poker as an act of vengeance. Correcting this sentence requires rearranging phrases and changing as to in. The man was not â€Å"playing poker as an act of vengeance.† He was â€Å"shot as an act of vengeance.† Why the man was shot is not as important as the fact that he was shot: â€Å"In 1858, a man playing poker was shot dead in an act of vengeance.† Changing as to in subordinates the reason for the shooting to the act of shooting. Context for the next item: The man who was shot left $600 on the table. Another man appropriated the $600 and continued playing, increasing the amount to $2,200. 4. When the cops heard word of this [the fact that the dead man’s winnings had been used by a subsequent gambler] they demanded the $600 was given to the next of kin to the deceased. This sentence requires editing in segments. i. When the cops heard word of this The idiom is â€Å"to have word of something.† For example, â€Å"I just had word that our team lost by one point.† Two ways to edit the original sentence: â€Å"When the cops heard of this, they demanded† â€Å"When the cops learned of this, they demanded† ii. they demanded the $600 A that is needed to introduce the noun clause that follows demanded: â€Å"they demanded that the $600.† Without the that, the reader is led to believe that the police were demanding the $600 for themselves. iii. demanded [that] the $600 was given to the next of kin The noun clause requires a verb in the passive subjunctive: â€Å"The police demanded that the $600 be given to the next of kin.† iv. given to the next of kin to the deceased The expression â€Å"next of kin† means, â€Å"nearest relation,† usually of a deceased person. For that reason, the prepositional phrase modifying kin is overkill. If another phrase were needed to explain the relationship with kin, the preposition would be of, not to: â€Å"the next of kin of the deceased.† 5. In 2002, two identical twin brothers were killed on the same road, from two different accidents i. two identical twin brothers The word twin conveys the meaning of two. ii. killedfrom two different accidents People are killed in accidents. They die of injuries. They suffer from diseases. And, again, the two is unnecessary. We already know that there were two people involved in separate accidents. 6. Later, Ziegland went to go chop down the tree that the bullet was inside. It’s enough to say, â€Å"went to chop down the tree.† The idea of â€Å"going† is contained in the verb went. 7. Coincidentally, their father was in the same hospital from recovering from a surgery. This sentence is meant to convey the idea that the father just happened to be in the same hospital his two sons were brought to following their accidents. The phrase â€Å"from recovering† seems to mean, â€Å"because he was recovering.† The indefinite article is not needed before the word surgery, at least not in American English. Edited: â€Å"Coincidentally, their father was in the same hospital, recovering from surgery.† An American speaker would use an article with the word operation: â€Å"recovering from an operation.† 8. Robert E Lee himself showed up at the cottage to request its use as a formal place of surrender. The contraction it’s stands for two words: it is. The context calls for the possessive adjective its. Edited: â€Å"Robert E Lee himself showed up at the cottage to request its use as a formal place of surrender.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Writing Basics category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Math or Maths?40 Synonyms for â€Å"Lie†10 Terms for the Common People

3 Types of Sentence Errors Resulting from Missing Articles

3 Types of Sentence Errors Resulting from Missing Articles 3 Types of Sentence Errors Resulting from Missing Articles 3 Types of Sentence Errors Resulting from Missing Articles By Mark Nichol In each of the following sentences, lack of an article (a, and, or the) results in a grammatically flawed sentence. Discussion after each example, followed by a revision, identifies the problem. 1. In 2006, The Simpsons television show paid tribute to the 1974 Oakland A’s in an episode. The first instance of the article the, as an element of a composition title, cannot do double duty as an article that performs a grammatical function in the sentence, and the statement must be revised so that it includes such an article: â€Å"In 2006, an episode of the television show The Simpsons paid tribute to the 1974 Oakland A’s.† (However, if â€Å"television show† were omitted from the original sentence, no further revision would be necessary.) 2. During our discussion, we’ll hear insights from a chief financial officer, investment banker, and others. â€Å"Chief financial officer† requires the article that precedes it, while the plural pronoun others does not need one. But â€Å"investment banker† is left in the lurch; it cannot share the article that precedes the first item in the list: â€Å"During our discussion, we’ll hear insights from a chief financial officer, an investment banker, and others.† (Even if a specific designation were to replace others, an article would have to precede each item: â€Å"During our discussion, we’ll hear insights from a chief financial officer, investment banker, and chief risk officer† implies that one person with three roles, rather than three people who each have one role, is being identified.) 3. Live Nation bought a majority stake in Austin City Limits Music Festival, Bonnaroo, BottleRock, Lollapalooza, Governor’s Ball, and Electric Daisy Carnival. Here, some of the listed event names do not require an article, but those that end with a word describing a type of event do: â€Å"Live Nation bought a majority stake in the Austin City Limits Music Festival, Bonnaroo, BottleRock, Lollapalooza, the Governors Ball, and the Electric Daisy Carnival.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Cost-Effective vs. Cost-EfficientHow to spell "in lieu of"Types of Plots

essay for police essays

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Migrants from Asia and the Middle East Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Migrants from Asia and the Middle East - Essay Example The book reads like a story of a society determined to rise out of the dredges of the disadvantages of diversity so as to achieve unity in all its quarters as it strives to retain its right to be different. The material contains the all important implication that understanding different lifestyles and ways of living gives people a broader perspective in their own lives - this thought can be called a summation of all the ideas in this book. Strangers to these Shores goes on to give an insight into various communities and so called minorities who have the potential to deliver us to unknown lands and their unknown cultures. The United States of America has a salad bowl for its cultural and social structure, owing to the fact that it is basically made up of immigrants pursuing the "Great American Dream". These immigrants fall into a variety of groups and minorities struggling to keep their basic identity intact and yet, contribute to the American mosaic of cultures and minorities. When on the discussion of minorities, it would be incomplete without a mention of Asian and Middle Eastern Immigrants. This group has emerged as on of the largest and most sizable immigrants to the United States of America. According to national figures and statistics, every fourth person in New York alone belongs to India or some country around it. Therefore, it comes as no surprise to find an entire chapter dedicated to this group. Chapter nine of Strangers to these Shores is called "Other Asian and Middle Eastern Americans". The paper in your hand is a summary of this chapter. Firstly, let us deal with the word "other". The use of this word in the chapter's title silently underscores the fact that this group has been relegated to the minority status. Moving on, it would be imperative to define "Asia" and the "Middle East", out of a need to distinguish between the two. While Asia widely refers to Middle Eastern states as well as countries like India, Pakistan, China, Japan and other South East Asian states, it is quite clear that the cultures are poles apart. A notable factor of this chapter that has to do with the broad definitions of these areas is the fact that it takes the Middle East and the rest of Asia i.e. when it says "other Asian immigrants", separately. That should suffice as a clear demarcation for the rest of the paper. In the course of this paper, the author seeks to educate the readers by starting out with facts that have to do with understanding the topical and current nature of the experiences of these people as compared to their black and other European counterparts. Since most of these peoples found themselves migrating to the United States since the 1965 Immigration Act, their basic trait is that they are comparatively unusual and still very "non - Western". Further, while many have been able to achieve a respectable social status, a majority of them have minimal participation with native-born U.S. residents owing to their cultural differences. These differences, like those of the groups who have come to settle down in America way before them, will be resolved only over time - i.e., when

Background on the Controversy Surrounding Freedom of Choice versus Essay

Background on the Controversy Surrounding Freedom of Choice versus Smoking Ban - Essay Example VII. Smoking publicly is another major issue because smokers are not only hurting themselves as they smoke in public places but also damaging the health of other surrounding non-smokers. A. Statistics on Passive Smoker Deaths B. Chronic health problems traced to passive smoking. VIII. Smoking is uncontrollable and is spreading at an extremely fast rate, due to both peer pressure and advertising. A. Teen smoking statistics B. Causes and consequences of underage smoking. IX. Advertisement is another factor which has greatly contributed to the fast growing rate of smoking among teens. A. Economics of tobacco advertisement B. Proliferation of tobacco ads. C. Consequence of tobacco advertisements X. The harms of smoking are such that it is imperative to pass a ban on public smoking as a means of discouraging the habit and limiting its harms, irrespective of arguments claiming that doing so would be a violation of inalienable human freedoms. In social, political and legal environments which uphold freedom of choice and personal liberty, the decision of some governments and local authorities to ban smoking in public places has been a subject of controversy and debate. In reaction to Scotland's decision to ban smoking in public places, Gillian Bowditch expressed concern over the way that governments are increasingly using the health concern and public welfare argument as an "excuse to invade personal freedom, reduce freedom of choice and create an artificially homogenous society." This is not an isolated reaction as in response to the Minnesotan federal government's proposal to ban smoking in public areas, Craig Westover argues that this is contrary to the US Constitution and against the very principles that the United States was...In reaction to Scotland's decision to ban smoking in public places, Gillian Bowditch expressed concern over the way that governments are increasingly using the health concern and public welfare argument as an "excuse to invade personal freedom, reduce freedom of choice and create an artificially homogenous society." This is not an isolated reaction as in response to the Minnesotan federal government's proposal to ban smoking in public areas, Craig Westover argues that this is contrary to the US Constitution and against the very principles that the United States was founded upon. The US Constitution and the country's founding principles emphasise the inalienable right to individual liberty and freedom of choice, with the implication being that the government, whether local, national or federal, does not possess the right to prohibit smoking in publicly owned properties (Westover). It is therefore apparent that the ban on smoking has been interpreted by some as a dangerous transgression against individual liberty and freedom of choice.

Youve just visited the doctor, and she has given you one week to live Essay

Youve just visited the doctor, and she has given you one week to live. How will you spend your final week on Earth - Essay Example I would begin immediately by visiting the people I know without informing them of my impending doom. I would seek their company for the last time before I begin to retrace my journey across the years and places that helped to shape what I am. A few laughs and some nostalgic conversation is all a man really needs to cheat the thought of impending doom. The next item in the agenda would be to visit the places that helped to fashion both the positivity and negativity inside me. Visiting these places would offer me the opportunity to observe how I have changed over the years as my life progressed. This nostalgic sojourn would also allow me to rediscover myself in new manners that might only be exposed through the juxtaposition of a certain purposelessness and aloofness from material reality. My journey into my past would also present me with the opportunity to recapture and re-experience the sights and sounds that I both cherished and detested. My last week on Earth would more or less be like living life all over again – only fast forwarded into a week’s time

Character Sketch Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Character Sketch - Essay Example is a man with consistent principles both in his views and deeds; a trait that earned him love and a barrage of criticisms in certain quarters in equal measure, more particularly among the white community for being too tolerant towards the plight of ‘Negros’ in the 80s when racism was at its peak. Big Daddy perceives every individual living within the United States and the world over as equal human beings who have all the rights to enjoy justice and social respect. Like principles etched in the corners of his brain, he memorizes the opening sentence of the second paragraph of the United States’ Declaration of Independence long considered the founding creed of America’s civil religion, and actually recites it as it is, that: â€Å"We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness.† Unlike the majority living during his time, Big Daddy led by example, falling far short to subscribing and living by the norms of the pride in the white community. Accordingly, he fell in love and actually married a black woman. Further, he has had a black man as his aid in his entire career as a lawyer and a rights defender. He actually started drifting off in his early ages, taking the very opposite steps like mingling a lot with the black community to demystify the long standing myths had been peddled for ages. Among other things that he will be remembered for by generations is the very brave act of helping the blacks with own resources in pursuit of injustices for crimes committed in total disregard of the law. According to Miss Jilian words – a neighbor and a friend – Big Daddy is not only a defender of justice, but a passionate, dedicated activist fighting battles worth fighting for even if it means putting his resources and life on the line; he has helped bring sanity into the minds hitherto full of hatred of

Bussiness interrogation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Bussiness interrogation - Essay Example An analysis of the foundation of motivation has been regarded as the first step towards the creation of successful organizations. Conversely, Allen and Gilmore (2006, pp.35), indicate that, Herzberg theory indicates that, Herzberg motivation theories of motivation are obliging to a proper understanding of the organization’s functions. In his work, Miner (2007, pp.84) argues that, the attributes that contribute to motivation and demotivation cannot be alienated from an understanding of the work place motivation. Motivation, which emanates from motivators, can be described as an intrinsic process that comes from within the individual. On the other hand, demotivators are extrinsic; that surround the individuals in the work place. Among the demotivators stated included, pay that was regarded as a short term motivator. After a while, employees were seen to be as demotivated as they were at the initiation of the time at the work place. This essay shall focus on the Coca Cola Company and the implication of Herzberg’s theory of motivation. Since the commencement of the company, its success story has always had its background on the motivation of employees in the organization. Through motivating employees, the company has managed to enjoy constant and consistent teamwork form its workers. In return, the employees have never compromised on the quality of products produced by the company. Herzberg’s theory, according to Sapru (2000, pp.76), revolves around two major factors that are inclusive of hygiene factors and the motivators. Hygiene factors are likely to cause dissatisfaction in the workplace if not put under scrutiny. Among the hygiene factors include, aspects like job security, safe working conditions, proper organizational policies as well as, quality of supervision along other factors. Sapru (2000, pp.76) argues that hygiene factors do not necessarily cause demotivation in the workplace, but if they are not incorporated in the work

Emergence of modern man Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Emergence of modern man - Essay Example The purpose of this short paper is to explore the influences of evolution and natural selection on modern man and to analyse whether these are continuing to have an effect on our species. The reason that many scientists argue that evolution and natural selection does not continue to exert an effect on modern man is because there are so many protections from nature. Food availability is one of the most important things for a species’ survival (Bootle, 2011), but many humans living in the West do not have to worry about food availability because much of it is available very cheaply and nutrition is found all year round. Many food items can now also be preserved to last through the winter, and these developments have come from a high level of intelligence. This, however, may be one of the problems. Some argue that the effects of obesity on our population may be having an effect similar to that of natural selection in the wild (Bootle, 2011), and could be used as evidence against our collective intelligence. Disease is also another one of the biggest parts of natural selection in the wild (McKie, 2002). However, modern man has developed a number of ways to prevent disease. Even in prehistory, there is evidence that there may have been some attempt at preventative and curative medicine (Regal, 2004), which suggests that man’s high intelligence has a function of preventing parts of natural selection. In modern times, several diseases which would have killed people prior to reproduction (and thus have bred the trait out), such as asthma and diabetes, are present in the population because they can be treated (Regal, 2004). This could also be evidence that natural selection is not as powerful for man as for other species. Perhaps one of the most interesting elements of the human species is that it occupies a huge amount of space on the

Character Sketch Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Character Sketch - Essay Example is a man with consistent principles both in his views and deeds; a trait that earned him love and a barrage of criticisms in certain quarters in equal measure, more particularly among the white community for being too tolerant towards the plight of ‘Negros’ in the 80s when racism was at its peak. Big Daddy perceives every individual living within the United States and the world over as equal human beings who have all the rights to enjoy justice and social respect. Like principles etched in the corners of his brain, he memorizes the opening sentence of the second paragraph of the United States’ Declaration of Independence long considered the founding creed of America’s civil religion, and actually recites it as it is, that: â€Å"We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness.† Unlike the majority living during his time, Big Daddy led by example, falling far short to subscribing and living by the norms of the pride in the white community. Accordingly, he fell in love and actually married a black woman. Further, he has had a black man as his aid in his entire career as a lawyer and a rights defender. He actually started drifting off in his early ages, taking the very opposite steps like mingling a lot with the black community to demystify the long standing myths had been peddled for ages. Among other things that he will be remembered for by generations is the very brave act of helping the blacks with own resources in pursuit of injustices for crimes committed in total disregard of the law. According to Miss Jilian words – a neighbor and a friend – Big Daddy is not only a defender of justice, but a passionate, dedicated activist fighting battles worth fighting for even if it means putting his resources and life on the line; he has helped bring sanity into the minds hitherto full of hatred of

Emergence of modern man Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Emergence of modern man - Essay Example The purpose of this short paper is to explore the influences of evolution and natural selection on modern man and to analyse whether these are continuing to have an effect on our species. The reason that many scientists argue that evolution and natural selection does not continue to exert an effect on modern man is because there are so many protections from nature. Food availability is one of the most important things for a species’ survival (Bootle, 2011), but many humans living in the West do not have to worry about food availability because much of it is available very cheaply and nutrition is found all year round. Many food items can now also be preserved to last through the winter, and these developments have come from a high level of intelligence. This, however, may be one of the problems. Some argue that the effects of obesity on our population may be having an effect similar to that of natural selection in the wild (Bootle, 2011), and could be used as evidence against our collective intelligence. Disease is also another one of the biggest parts of natural selection in the wild (McKie, 2002). However, modern man has developed a number of ways to prevent disease. Even in prehistory, there is evidence that there may have been some attempt at preventative and curative medicine (Regal, 2004), which suggests that man’s high intelligence has a function of preventing parts of natural selection. In modern times, several diseases which would have killed people prior to reproduction (and thus have bred the trait out), such as asthma and diabetes, are present in the population because they can be treated (Regal, 2004). This could also be evidence that natural selection is not as powerful for man as for other species. Perhaps one of the most interesting elements of the human species is that it occupies a huge amount of space on the

Race & Ethnicity in Social Sciences Essay Example for Free

Race Ethnicity in Social Sciences Essay Defining identity can be complex and therefore we have to investigate the factors involved that make us who we are and how we are seen by others, collectively or individually. Social scientists have to consider the key elements which shape identity, the importance of social structures and agency involved. The differences and/or similarities between us are the focus that categorise and label us in society. Knowing who we are is important for many reasons including, social rights, obtaining a passport, housing, health, employment, marriage, and over all, being able to ascertain who we are, and belong. The terms ? race and ? ethnicity are central features in the process of categorisation. ?Racial or ? Ethnic identifications are produced as part of a social process, which is dynamic and changing. Therefore we know that identities are not static and terms such as ? race and ? ethnicity cannot cover the changing categories without being dynamic terms themselves. The use of quotation marks with these terms is adopted to emphasise that the terms are broad terms and aim to avoid discrimination or misrepresentation of groups under the umbrella term.? Race is commonly used by media and society to portray the physical differences between people, however, social scientists choose to show that the term does not refer to exact biological differences, is stereotypical, and the quotation marks emphasise the concept as more of an assumption which has political implications. The term is socially constructed and therefore does serve an essential purpose in society as it has real affects and associations. The term ?ethnicity refers to cultural practices and history, such as religion, language and territory, where a person or a group derives from, summarising their beliefs and traditions, therefore, ethnicity applies to everyone, necessitating the birth of terms ? minority ethnic group and ? majority ethnic group (Questioning Identity, Ch 4, P124, section 2. 3) to subcategorise identities in relation to ethnicity. Social scientists use quotation marks around these terms to signify that the blanket term does not distinguish between personal and social identity, but acts mainly as a collective identity concept. For example, identification on a British passport may categorise the holder as being ? British although they may be Scottish/Chinese. Social scientists prefer to call UK society a ? multi-ethnic society. These subgroup identities highlight the relational factors which exist in categorising identity, each requiring the other in order to make the comparison between ethnic differences, power and status. Racialization and Ethnicization are preferred concepts as they contribute more to the idea that the identities we adopt are part of a process and are not static, referring to a dynamic process rather than a fixed state. Categorisations from the 1970s onwards, such as the definition of ? black or ? white, were too vague, and failed to recognise the specific needs of other ethnic minorities. In order to monitor and measure statistically the discrimination and underachievement of such groups, collecting ? ethnic statistics in relation to ? race and ? ethnicity was necessary and these can be found in official government censuses. Over the years it became apparent that categorisation of ethnic groups in the censuses rendered some groups ? invisible (Questioning Identity, ch 4, p 137, section 4. 1. 1), for example Irish and Welsh. The category of ? white has had to be expanded into subcategories as the ? white grouping classification remained singular within the censuses until 2001, and ethnicization of ? whites was too generalised. (Questioning Identity: Kath Woodward ch. 4 p138 Office of Population Censuses and Surveys, 1991) These amendments show us that there have been changes in ethnic representation and that there is more awareness regarding ethnic identities and needs. The sub-categorisation of ethnic identities is used in everyday life such as in the media, job applications and insurance documents. The importance of the emergence of new and changing identities in a multi-ethnic society has led to uncertainties about what it means to be ? British. In the 1980s for example, the Commission for Racial Equality sponsored research into the claims by Irish ethnic groups making claims that they were discriminated against by public and private agencies as their ? invisibility misrepresented their particular needs. (Questioning Identity: Kath Woodward, ch. 4, p145). The 1960s Black is Beautiful movement (Questioning Identity: Kath Woodward, ch4, 2. 2, p118) campaigned the category of ?black, inclusive of Asians and any other non-white groups, as inappropriate and too wide an assumption. Collective group action and social creativity disputed the terminology of ? black and involved a struggle to alter the social meaning of blackness, as opposed to the more ? powerful ethnic majority status of being ? white. This redefined black social status and proved that black identities were not fixed but dynamic, changing from a term with connotations of disrespect, to one of pride, proving identities are collective and political as well as individual and relational, Whiteness is used as an invisible marker against which other ?ethnicities are judged (Kath Woodward, Questioning Identity, Ch 4, p 136, Section 4. 1). REFERENCES DD 121, Questioning Identity: gender, class, ethnicity. Kath Woodward, The Open University, Routledge, 2004. DD121, Workbook 1, Norma Sherratt, David Goldblatt, Maureen Mackintosh and Kath Woodward, The Open University, Routledge, 2004. DD121, Block 1, The Open University, TV02 Defining Moments DD121, Block 1, Audio 2, The Open University, Audio 3A DD121, Block 1, Audio 2, The Open University, Audio 3B.

The Decisive Role Of Humour In Advertising English Language Essay

The Decisive Role Of Humour In Advertising English Language Essay Humour plays a decisive role in our daily life and it is also a subject of interest of numerous disciplines such as linguistics, popular culture, psychology, mass communications, marketing and some others. The discussion of what humour is can be traced back to Aristotle and Plato. The complexity of this phenomenon has been an intrigue for many researches. Humor is a universal human activity found among all cultures and throughout all of recorded history (Alden, Hoyer, and Lee 1993). Humour is widely used in advertising as a form of communication in order to persuade customers to purchase products and services since it is generally believed among advertisers that making us laugh will encourage positive thoughts and feelings toward their products and brands and put us in a receptive mood for their sales messages (Beard 2008: 2). Cook said that advertising is always a handy and useful mirror if we want to reflect on the way we behave socially (Cook 1992:5). However, the use of humour in advertising remains very controversial as its presence in advertising can cause both positive and negative effects. Response to a humorous ad can be different as individuals have different sense of humour. Therefore humour is very individual and subjective but at the same time it is universal. According to Raskin responding to humor is part of human behavior, ability, or competence, other parts of which comprise such important social and psychological manifestations of Homo sapiens as language, morality, logic, faith, etc. Just as all of those, humor may be described as partly natural and partly acquired (Raskin 1985: 2). Throughout its history there were many attempts to define humour but none of the definitions accounts for all its possible types thus underlying its complexity. Humour can be broadly identified as a form of communication in which a created stimulus may act to provide pleasure for an audience (Gulas and Weinberger 2006: 95). Attardo states that linguists, psychologists, and anthropologists have taken humor to be an all-encompassing category, covering any event or object that elicits laughter, amuses, or is felt to be funny (Attardo 1994:4). It is very important to distinguish between humour and laughter as humour has been often identified with laughter  [1]  which seems to be wrong as humour a mental phenomenon while laughter is rather a neurophysiological reaction to it. 1.2 Aim and scope The objective of this thesis is to contribute to further understanding of one of the numerous strategies employed by advertisers, namely humour. However, this thesis does not set out to provide a theoretical framework for humour in spite of the fact that the following chapters make frequent reference to the academic and scientific literature. The overall aim of the study is not only to provide a better understanding of humour in print advertising and give an insight into different linguistic theories of humour as well as its different types but also to describe different linguistic features which advertisers use to incorporate humour and illustrate this by means of empirical material gathered from a variety of sources. Under this point humour will be divided into two groups: pun-based humour and non-pun humour. We deal with pun humour when the advertiser uses elements of language to create new meanings that result in humour. My supposition is that this is the type of humour which mos t often occurs in print advertising. In this regard such linguistic devices will be described as polysemy, homonymy, idiomatic expressions, neologisms and nonce formations, and antonyms. However this would be just mere identification of a certain type of humour in advertising and its enabling factors. Therefore the extent of the study is to look how different types of humour vary across different products and services advertised in magazines. Since it is generally believed that the best media suited to the use of humour are radio and TV, lots of studies exploring the use of humour and its effectiveness were conducted mostly in this field. Therefore this thesis is focused on the advertisements presented in print media and does not feature ads that appear on the television, radio, internet, and cinema. There has always been a great debate over whether humorous print advertisements work and of course there is no need to say that they do. We just have to remember that humour print invol ves a more intimate relationship. Graham Warsop, the only creative director to have judged the big four international advertising awards, once said: Print humour gets someone to smile inwardly rather than outwardly (Aitchison 2004:). This states again that not everybody will laugh at the same things. It should be noted that headline and body copy of an advertisement will not be the crucial means of attraction since most advertisements are humorous only due to the interplay of text and image. The picture often functions as an eye-catcher in the ad whereas its meaning differs from the meaning of the text. Cook considers pictures to be a part of advertising discourse as they are used to convey a central idea in the ad (Cook 2003:6). Thus, both pictures and headlines will be seen as equivalent and will be considered together as their interplay contributes to the overall meaning of the text.  [2]  Advertising in its turn will be seen in the thesis as a communication process. 1.3 Outline As shown in the table of contents, this thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter One is the introduction in which the purpose and the research questions are stated. It starts by providing a background of the subject of the thesis, and then moves on to description of material and methods and ends by introducing the advertising terminology. Chapter Two is dedicated to a more detailed delimitation of the concept of humour, with an overview of the major humour theories which are necessary for introducing the operational definition of humour that will be used in this study. Chapter Three presents humour types. It discusses numerous existing taxonomies of humour types and offers a new classification which subdivides humour types into two main groups: pun based humour vs. non pun humour. The structure of this chapter is centered on this taxonomy with the corresponding analysis of the advertisements. Chapter Four is a research part of the thesis which analyzes the incidence of the identifie d humour types across various products and services and presents the collected empirical data as well as the results and findings. Chapter Five functions as a summing-up in which the research questions are answered and the conclusions are drawn. A bibliography and appendix will conclude the thesis. 1.4 Material and Method As stated above this thesis is focused on the advertisements presented in print media and does not feature ads that appear on the television, radio, internet, and cinema. The selected material consists of a total of sixty two humorous advertisements chosen from the range of around two hundred English-speaking magazines published between the years 2006 and 2010. Popular lifestyle magazines have been mainly used as they are directed toward a general audience and have a high content of ads which advertise a wide range of products and service. I used so wide range of magazines because one and the same ad have been found in numerous magazines as well as in different issues of one and the same magazine. For this thesis I have mainly used such glossy magazines as Cosmopolitan, Marie Claire, In Touch, Chat, OK, In Style, Self, The Economist and some others. No gender issues will be put forward in this thesis as well as no differentiation will be made between humour in British and US magazine s as it would give this thesis a whole new dimension. As a first step in the selection procedure, I looked for any ads that displayed humorous context. The selection was relatively wide as this resulted in around 100 ads which I considered to be humorous. It should be noted that when browsing through numerous magazines it is very difficult to determine whether the ad is humorous or not as certain subjectivity is always involved into the process of decision making. That is why the subjectivity is inevitable. Despite the fact that such procedure of selection is often employed by many researches, I tried to avoid making decisions without consideration of opposing opinions and different points of view. For this purpose one interview was conducted the aim of which was to exclude prevailed subjectivity in my selective procedure and to explore two basic questions: which advertisements will be still considered as humorous according to the interviewees and how they will determine the type of humour in case the ad proves to be humorous. A remark should be made under this point that anyway it will be to a certain degree the so called unilateral decision as in the long run it is me who decided which ads would be included and which would be left out. It is also worth of mentioning that the interview is not the main purpose of this study and that is why its presence in the thesis will be limited by the short description of its procedure and results. Coming back to the interview procedure, it should be noted that the interview was conducted in a small group consisted of twelve participants. The length of the interview was two hours. Around one hundred fifty different ads were presented to the participants chosen on the assumption that all of them were humorous. In order to ensure that the results would not be biased, the participants were not informed about this fact as well they did not know what the study was exactly about. The participants were asked to have a look at each advertisement and to determine whether they consider it to be interesting or boring, creative or not creative and humorous or non-humorous. The two supplement questions besides the question about the presence or absence of humour in the ad were introduced only with the purpose of trying to avoid some potential disadvantages which are directly connected with an interview. This is the so called participant reflexivity, which means that the person being intervi ewed (interviewee) tells the interviewer only what s/he wants to hear. Then, since many people often expect from a humorous ad to make them burst into laughing and such an attitude would bias the results of the interview I decided to ask them to rate (in case they think the advertisement is humorous) how humorous it was on a five-point-scale. Rating an advertisement as 5 meant that they considered it to be very humorous, 3 indicated that it was a moderate representative of humorousness whereas 1 suggested that it was a very poor example of a humorous ad and should be probably excluded from the list. The results drawn after the evaluation of twelve questionnaires were surprisingly consistent. The agreement was particularly high for the identification of the given advertisements to be humorous or non-humorous. As for rating is concerned the results were not similar, better to say they were very inconsistent and that proves again that humour is always being judged individually and subj ectively. After that all the ads were sorted out to determine which ads would be fruitful for a qualitative analysis. The advertisements which were considered by most of the participants as not humorous at all were excluded from the list of candidates for future analysis. 1.5 Advertising terminology No need to say that advertising hat its own terminology. I am not going to list all the terms you can find in the field of advertising. Thus, the terminology will be limited to a few terms which are frequently used in this thesis. I will follow Cooks definitions which he presents in his Discourse of Advertising (2003). According to him Headline Phrase(s) found at the top of an ad. Caption Phrases (s) found in close proximity to an image. Body copy A piece of smaller text, often containing the main (or copy) information. . CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 Introduction As was mentioned in the introduction, humour is by no means homogenous. Since there is no general acceptance in classifying humour, there is no ideal theory of humour which can cover all its factors and embrace all its peculiarities. Most of the existing humour theories are mixed and it seems to be impossible to incorporate such a huge phenomenon as humour into a single integrated theory. As a starting point it can be asserted that humour is triggered by particular mechanisms (Spotts, 1987). Spotts states that these mechanisms can be grouped into three main categories: the cognitive theory, superiority theory, and the relief theory (Spotts et al. 1997:20). The chapter that follows is dedicated to some of the main threads of the theories of humour that have emerged although it is important to notice that not all humour theories ever proposed will be presented in it and it will not be attempted to make a comprehensive survey of all these ideas. Only those theories will be discussed which play a significant role for working out an operational definition of humour for this thesis. 2.2 Incongruity and Incongruity-Resolution Theory Incongruity can be called in other words inconsistency or contradiction. The incongruity theory goes back to Francis Hutchesons Reflections Upon Laughter published in 1750. Later on it was revisited and represented by Kant, Schopenhauer and Kierkegaard. Incongruity theories are considered to be cognitive in their nature. This is the group of theories which dominates humour research. According to McGhee (1979) humour is as reaction to incongruity and he defined incongruity as the relationship between components of an object, event, idea, social expectation and so forth. When the arrangement for the constituent element of an event is incompatible with the normal or expected pattern, the event is perceived as incongruous. The existing theories of incongruity have a difference based on the question whether incongruity is a necessary condition for humour to be produced and if yes, whether it is sufficient or probably there are other conditions needed to cause humour. Based on this fact tw o schools of thought about incongruity theories appeared: the so called one-stage incongruity theories and two-stage incongruity-resolution theories. One-stage incongruity theorists like many representatives of some psychological theories propose that we often laugh when we see or hear something unexpected. In terms of this theory it can be said that we cognitively process (or think about) the message in a single stage that includes three parts interruption (whats that?), perceptual contrast (theres something incongruous and unexpected here!), and playful confusion (whats it mean) (Speck, 1987:7). Other theorists like Jerry Suls and Thomas Schultz, the opponents of the two-stage incongruity resolution theory, postulate that it is not sufficient for a message to be funny by itself and they insist on the overlapping of meanings of the incongruous parts and on the presence of a second stage, namely the resolution of the incongruity. Incongruity becomes stronger only when it follows a resolution process and is understood and accepted by its audience (Gulas and Weinberger 2006: 23à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 26). Attardo considered incongruity theories to be cognitive in their nature and were often associated with linguistic theories of humour. To summarize the ideas, it can be added that incongruity theory is based on the idea of a contrast between two overlapping scripts whereas incongruity-resolution theory requires the presence of two stages: incongruity as derivation from expectation and incongruity understood in resolution which in its turn results in amusement. Incongruity is seen by many researches as a humour type. I prefer to see it as a condition needed to produce humour. 2.3 Superiority Theory The second branch of the main humour theories is presented by theories of superiority. These theories have gone by lots of names such as disparagement, criticism, hostility, aggression, malice, degradation, and derision. This group of humour theories is based on the ideas of Aristotle, Quintillian, Plato, and later Thomas Hobbes (seventeenth century) and it is directly connected with the social function of humour which cannot be said about the incongruity theories which consider humour as an individual phenomenon. Superiority theory is a theory of mockery. In terms of this theory humour is pointed against something or somebody thus making us to believe that something or somebody is superior to somebody else. In other words we laugh from feelings of superiority over other people, from suddaine Glory arising from suddaine Conception of some Eminency in our selves, by Comparison with the Infirmityes of others, or with our owne formerly (Critcheley, 2002: 3). It is suggested that people joke about things that make them feel unsure and/or uncomfortable as a way of releasing feelings of tensions (Gulas and Weinberger 2006: 28). 2.4 Release Theories Release theories as well as superiority theories have numerous names such as arousal theory  [3]  , freedom theory  [4]  , and tension-release theory  [5]  . This group of theories describes how people respond emotionally to humour. It was put forward by Herbert Spencer in the nineteenth century but it was better explained and thus it is better known from Freuds analysis of humorous utterances given in his book Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious (1905). Freud proposed that jokes provide us with a release from the constant need to repress our natural aggressive and sexual desires, and are thus experienced as pleasurable. Like dreams, jokes come from the unconscious, bur are first transformed into less explicit forms, thereby providing a socially acceptable way of breaking taboos (Ventola, Guijarro 2009: 79). The release theory has rather to do with the physiological function of humour. It is based on the notion of homeostasis, which means that humans regulate their inner environment on the physiological level in order to ensure certain stability in response to strain, tension, and anxiety. Morreall (1983) talks about the biological function of laughter and insists on the possibility of coexistence of relief theory with other theories discussed above: incongruity (relief through resolution) and superiority (relief through triumph.  [6]   2.5 Linguistic Theories of Humour Since all the existing theories of humour are based on the notion of incongruity there is no theory about which it can be definitely said that it is a purely linguistic one. Linguistic in this case is rather a conditional name. Nevertheless, the first step into this direction was put forward by Raskin, who suggested a script-based semantic theory developed for verbal humour. Viktor Raskins Script-Based Semantic Theory of Humour was presented in his book Semantic Mechanisms of Humor (1985) which was a great contribution to all of the humour theories ever proposed and a first attempt to describe humour from a linguistic perspective. Raskin set his goal as following: Ideally, a linguistic theory of humour should determine and formulate and the necessary and sufficient linguistic conditions for the text to be funny (Raskin, 1985: 47). The script-based semantic theory of humour was designed as a neutral theory which takes in account all the three theories discussed above. According to Raskins theory, verbal or written communication is considered to be a joke if the text is fully compatible with two different but at the same time opposite scripts. Script in this case presents a large chunk of semantic information. This is the main hypothesis of his theory: A text can be characterized as a single-joke-carrying text if both of the conditions are satisfied. i) Th e text is compatible, fully or in part, with two different scripts ii) The two scripts with which the text is compatible are opposite in a special sense (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦). The two scripts with which the text is compatible are said to overlap fully or in part on this text (Raskin 1985: 99). Raskin introduces the notion of the trigger or a punch-line, which switches the listener from one script to another thus creating the joke (Raskin, 1985: 36). Raskins theory can be interpreted within the terms of incongruity ­-resolution school of humour. Although his theory was primarily developed for verbal humour it proves to be effective for many types of humorous advertising, both for verbal and for visual. It should be noted that there is also a revisited version of the SSTH called The General Theory of Verbal Humour (GTVH). This theory was a result of collaboration of Raskin and Attardo. The main aim of the GTVH was to broaden the scope of Raskins SSTH in order to apply it to any humorous text.  [7]  Attardo comments about it as following: Whereas the SSTH was a semantic theory of humor, the GTVH is a linguistic theory at large that is, it includes other areas of linguistics as well, including, most notably, textual linguistics, the theory of narrativity, and pragmatics (Attardo 1994: 222). Attardo postulates that resolution does not exclude the presence of incongruity; they coexist and accompany each other so that any humorous text will contain an element of incongruity and an element of resolution (Attardo 1994: 144). 2.5.2 Operational Definition An operational definition of humour will have to encompass all the above listed theories as all of them are important for the analysis of the advertisements in this thesis. Under this point I would fully agree with Raskin when he said that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the incongruity-based theories make a statement about the stimulus; the superiority theories characterize the relations or attitudes between the speaker and the hearer; and the release/relief theories comment on the feelings and psychology of the hearer only. (Raskin 1985: 40) The operational definition of a humorous advertisement will be worked out in terms of Raskins SSTH. The question arises why no I do not follow the GTVH. There are reasons for that. First, the GTVH adopted the main hypothesis of the SSTH. Second, the broadenings introduced, are not of much importance for a current analysis. The third reason is that the GTVH is still under development and not all the problematic issues have been resolved yet. So the advertisement will be considered to be humorous if it fulfills the following conditions: the advertisement has two overlapping scripts which cause the incongruity these two scripts are in the opposite relation to each other. The first condition alone would not be enough for the advertisement to be humorous as the overlapping of two scripts may have a non-funny text as a result as well. CHAPTER 3. HUMOUR TYPES 3.1 Introduction Since there is no universal definition of humour, there are many ways to classify it and there is no universally accepted classification of humour types. Taxonomies of humour types are very different and not homogeneous. There have been many attempts to classify humour according to different criteria. Kelly and Solomon (1975), for example, classified humour according to techniques used in order to produce humorous effect and presented seven types such as a pun, an understatement, a joke, something ludicrous, satire, irony and humorous intent whereas Goldstein and McGhee talked about three types: nonsense, sexual and aggressive. An overview of some main classifications is presented in Table 2  [8]  , which proves the fact that the typologies of humour types are diverse and mixed as well as terminology used for different types of humour: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Raskin) The classification of humour types presented in this thesis is based on the taxonomy offered by Catanescu and Tom (2001) which in its turn used Reicks practitioner-oriented classification system as a basis. Catanescu and Tom adopted five types from this classification and added two new types which resulted in seven following humour types: comparison, personification, exaggeration, pun, sarcasm, silliness, and surprise. As the study they conducted was not only devoted to homour in print advertising, not all humour types presented in their taxonomy could be included into classification for this thesis. Thus, such category as surprise had to be left out despite several examples of using this technique in a print advertisement which could be found during the analysis of selected material. The reason for that was the fact that the operational definition did not work with this humour type as some other mechanisms were involved in such advertisements which were beyond the current analysis. To avoid the mixture of devices, types and techniques about which Raskin spoke, all these types were divided into two main categories, namely pun humour and non-pun humour each of them was subdivided into several sub categories. In such a way polysemy, homonymy, nonce-formations and idiomatic expressions fell under the category of pun humour and such types as comparison, personification, exaggeration, sarcasm and silliness under the category of non-pun humour correspondently. The goals of this chapter are: a) to introduce some definitions of a pun to frame the discussion, b) to give an insight into some types of pun taxonomies, c) to develop pun taxonomy for the current analysis and to describe the nature of the linguistic phenomena involved in puns illustrating it with the help of gathered material, d) to offer a taxonomy of non-pun humour taking into account the occurrence of each type in the advertisements collected from the magazines. 3.2 Oh! Thats a pun and I didnt mean it  [9]   Before talking about pun-based humour it seems to be of great importance to determine what will be understood under pun. Puns are said to be the most common basis for humour.  [10]  The management of humorous language is largely a matter of devising transfers the transfer from set to set, from scale to scale, from layer to layer, until the happy conclusion of a double vision is achieved. At the heart of this process of continual and multiple transference, an important process aping the shiftiness of thought itself, is the apparently frivolous device of pun; word-play is the lure, the spinning toy that draws up the lurking and fishy meaning. We take punning for a tawdry and facetious thing, one of the less profound forms of humour, but that is the prejudice of our time; a pun may be profoundly serious, or charged with pathos (Nash 1985: 137). As mentioned in the introduction, my supposition is that pun is the type of humour which most often occurs in print advertising despite qui te the opposite points of view when puns were criticized for their frustrating ambiguity and for representing a simple and less sophisticated form of humour. That is why many advertisers prefer not to include puns into advertisements believing that they have a low intellectual status. Nash defends the pun against such accusations offering his own list of puns and insisting on the fact that puns are common in the language of journalism (Nash 1985: 137). Sherzer provides another argument in defense of puns in advertising stating that puns are higly appropriate for advertising as they deliver two meanings for the price of one (Sherzer 1985). The same opinion shares Redfern: Advertising space is costly. Economy is essential, and puns are highly economical (two meanings for the price of one word or phrase), and in fact much more of a labour-saving device than many of the products they seek to promote. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) Since the fundamental message of all advertising is known to everyone in advance, there is a need for diversification. Wordplay, with its distortions, bifurcations and re-creations, introduces variety and refreshment into saturation. Puns, the devious ones, are a way round those rather stuffy rules of the advertising watchdogs: adverts should be legal, decent and true. A recipe for mass-producted boredom. The words of adverts are double-talk, necessarily. If adverts told only the verifiable truth, they would be pedantic and tedious. And so they have to approximate; they have to say one thing and suggest another. Obliqueness is all. So why not make a virtue out of necessity, and a silk purse out of a sows ear? (Redfern 1982: 130-131). Redfern asserts that puns are well suited for advertising as they are usually delivered with the requisite ambivalent mixture of false apology and only too real aggression (Redfern 1982:275). Definitions of pun as well as definitions of humour vary greatly from researcher to researcher. Freud considered puns to be the lowest form calling them cheapest stating that they can be formed with the least effort.  [11]  Walter Redfern (1984) devoted a whole book to pun in which he said that pun can make an individual. (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) It can ruin lazy expectations; subvert the nature of language and thought (Redfern 1984: ). Sherzer defined it as a form of speech play in which a word or phrase unexpectedly and simultaneously combines two unrelated meanings (Sherzer 1978: 336). This the point (the presence of two senses) on which all linguistic and non-linguistic analyses agree. Following the rules of the incongruity-resolution theory a phenomenon of pun can be defined as two meanings incongruously combined in one and the same sentence. These two meanings cause ambiguity due to which a conflict arises between the two senses which is subsequently resolved by the surprising punchline (Ross 1998:8). Following the operational definition of a humorous advertisement, a pun-based humorous ad has to fulfill the following conditions: two meanings have to be semantically incompatible, i.e. opposed. This is the so called deliberate ambiguity in a pun which creates the incongruity. Then it must be followed by resolution leading to humorous interpretation. 3.3 Pun taxonomy There are numerous taxonomies of puns witch essentially differ from each other. Attardo criticized these taxonomies and attempts to explain the phenomenon of pun through its taxonomy. He tried to build the taxonomy of the taxonomies and distinguished four major types of pun classifications, namely: taxonomies by linguistic phenomenon, by linguistic structure, by phonemic distance, and eclectic (Attardo 1994: 112). Tanaka distinguished four categories of puns in advertising: nonsense puns, contextual puns, puns with sexual innuendo, and puns with two communicated meanings (Tanaka 1994: 64-80). I will keep to taxonomy based on linguistic phenomena as it is the most relevant one for this thesis. Taxonomies based o